MODULE:2

(SHAIVISM)

INTRODUCTION TO SHAIVISM:

·       Shaivism is the name given to the practice of worshipping Lord shiva as the highest supreme God.

·       As per artifacts obtained from IVC suggests that the earliest form of shiva worship was practiced b/t 2800 BCE-1500 BCE.

·       These artifacts include numerous lingas carved on rock surfaces as well as Pasupathi seals found at Mohenjo-Daro.

·       It is with the rise to prominence of the puranas during the Gupta dynasty (320-500 CE), that Shaivism spread most rapidly throughout the Indian sub-continent.

SYMBOLS OF SHAIVISM:

·       Linga:

§  It is one of the primary symbol of Shaivism.

§  It is of a phallic shape which represents shiva by embodying his regenerative capability as the destroyer and producer of the universe.

·       Tilak:

§  The tilak is a Hindu sectarian mark worn on the forehead, which varies in shape according to the different folds of Hinduism.

§  The Shaivite tilak appears as three horizontal lines, also known as the tripundra, drawn upon the forehead with ashes.

SCHOOLS/SECTS OF SHAIVISM:

·       Pashupatas:

§  The ascetic Pashupatas are one of the oldest named Shaivite sects.

§  The most likely founders of this group was Lakulisa.

·       Kapalikas:

·       Kalamukhas:

·       Nayanars:

JYOTIRLINGAS:

Jyotirlingas are representation of shiva and there are 12 Jyotirlingas.

·       Somnath Temple (Gujarat):

·       Mallikarjuna Jyotirlinga (Andhra Pradesh):

·       Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlingas (Madhya Pradesh):

·       Omkareshwar Jyotirlingas (Madhya Pradesh):

·       Vaidyanath Jyotirlinga (Jharkhand):

·       Bhimashankar Jyotirlinga (Maharashtra):

·       Rameshwar Jyotirlinga (Tamil Nadu):

·       Nageshwar Jyotirlinga (Gujarat):

·       Kashi Vishwanath (Varanasi):

·       Trimbakeshwar Jyotirlinga (Nasik):

·       Kedarnath Jyotirlinga (Uttarakhand):

·       Ghrishneshwar Jyotirlinga (Aurangabad):

(VAISHNAVISM)

INTRODUCTION TO VAISHNAVISM:

·       Vaishnavism is the name given to the practice of worshipping Lord Vishnu as the highest supreme God.

·       Vaishnavism is also known as Bhagvatism.

·       Vaishnavism regards Vishnu as the creator of the universe,

·       He reigns in Baikuntha and rests in the primeval ocean on the thousand-headed snake Sesanaga.

·       Religious texts associated with Vaishnavism includes Puranas such as Bhagavad Gita, Bhagwat Puranas etc.

ABOUT VISHNU:

·       His color is blue and his wife is Laxmi, Goddess of wealth and prosperity.

·       He rides great eagle Garuda.

·       Brahma who created the universe was born in lotus flower which grew from the navel of Vishnu in his sleep.

·       The most popular of his avatars are Rama and Krishna.

·       He is worshipped in the form of 10 incarnations:

1.       Matsya (The Fish)

2.       Kurma (The Turtle)

3.       Varaha (The Boar)

4.       Narsimha (The Man-Lion)

5.       Vamana (The Dwarf)

6.       Parasurama (The Angry Man)

7.       Lord Rama (The Perfect)

8.       Balarama (Krishna’s Elder Brother)

9.       Lord Krishna (The Divine Statesman)

10.   Kalki (The Mighty Warrior)

(SHAKTISM)

INTRODUCTION TO SHAKTISM:

·       Shaktism is the name given to the practice of worshipping Goddess Shakti as the highest supreme God.

·       The followers of Shaktism as called as Shaktas.

·       Shaktas use mantra, tantra, yantra, yoga and puja to invoke cosmic forces and awaken the kundalini power.

·       Goddess shakti is worshipped in various forms such as: Parvati, Durga, Kali, Lakshmi and Saraswati.

·       Shiva and Shakti are contemporary deities of Shaivism and Shaktism respectively.

MAJOR FESTIVALS:

·       Navratri:

§  This festival is celebrated for 9 nights which begins in October.

§  During these 9 days Bengalis celebrate Durga puja.

·       Diwali:

§  It is a festival of lights celebrated nationally.

§  During this festival, Goddess Laxmi is worshipped for material prosperity and bountiful harvest.

·       Durga Puja:

§  This festival is Popularly and commonly celebrated in Bengal as a contemporary of Navratri.

§  This celebrates Durga’s victory over the demon Mahishasura, saving both the earth and the heavens.

·       Kali Puja:

§  It is celebrated in October/November throughout all of India.

§  The main purpose of this festival is to petition the goddess to destroy evil by diminishing the ego and all negative aspects of humans that hinders spiritual progress.

·       Meenakshi Kalyanam:

§  It takes place in April/May and most popular in the regions of Madurai, located in Tamil Nadu.

§  The festival commemorates / recall the divine wedding of Goddess Meenakshi with Lord Sundareshwar (Shiva).

(JAINISM)

INTRODUCTION TO JAINISM:

·       Followers of Jainism are called as Jains.

·       Jains history is traced through a succession of 24 Tirthankaras (first being the “Rishabhdev” and 23^rd & 24^th being the “Mahavira” & “Parshvanatha” respectively).

·       Jainism is divided into two sects: Digambara (sky clad) and Svetambara (white clad).

·       Digambaras: (Stay naked & just carry a broom made up of fallen peacock feathers and Kamandal) and

Svetambaras: (wear white clothes and cover their mouth with white cloth)

TIRTHANKARAS:

·       Tirthankaras are the omniscient teacher who preaches the dharma.

·       There are 24 Tirthankaras who were born in royal families.

·       Tirthankaras are represented either seated in Padmasana or standing in the meditation Kayotsarga posture.

·       Tirthankaras idols looked similar and are differentiated on the basis of symbols or emblem belonging to each Tirthankaras.

THREE JEWELS

Jainism instructs the followers to cultivate the three Jewels:

·       Right belief

·       Right knowledge

·       Right conduct

·       Sallekhana, a religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death by gradually reducing the intake of food and liquids, is a supplementary vow to the ethical code of conduct of Jainism.

FIVE VOWS

Emerging from these three jewels and relating to right conduct are the five vows:

·       Ahimsa (Non-violence): According to Jainism, all living beings are equal.

·       Satya (Truthfulness): Anger, greed, fear and jokes are the breeding grounds of untruth.

·       Asteya (Non-stealing): Stealing consist of taking another’s property without his consent or by unjust or immoral methods.

·       Brahmacharya (Celibacy): Total abstinence from sensual pleasures and the pleasures of all five senses are called Celibacy.

·       Aparigraha (Non-attachment): Jainism believes that attachment with worldly objects results in the bondage to the cycle of birth and death.

JAIN PHILOSOPHY:

·       The concept of non-injury or ahimsa lies at the core of Jain philosophy.

·       The concept of Dana (charity) has been recognized as the fundamental natural phenomenon of inter-dependence.

·       The Dana (charity) with reference to its recipients has been divided into two classes: Patra Dana & Karuna Dana.

·       Patra Dana means gifts or offerings made with respect and devotion to worthy recipients and

Karuna Dana means gifts or offerings made out of compassion to anyone who deserves it.

DOCTORINES of REALITY:

·       Jainism has propounded three doctrines of relativity used for logic and reasoning:

§  Anekanta vada

§  Syad vada

§  Naya vada

·       Anekanta vada: According to this doctrine, truth and relativity are perceived differently from different points of view.

·       Syad vada: According to this doctrine, each statement can be expressed from seven d/f conditional and relative viewpoints.

·       Naya vada: According to this doctrine, when one describes relevant aspect of an object, its other irrelevant aspects are ignored.

JAIN SYMBOLS:

Jain religion incorporates many symbols like: Swastika, Symbol of Ahimsa, Om and Flag.

·       Swastika: Its four arms symbolize the four realms of existence in which rebirth occurs and three dots on the top represents three Jewels.

·       Symbol of Ahimsa: The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolized ahimsa in Jainism and wheel represents the Dharmachakra.

·       Om: It represents the five lines of the Namokar Mantra.

·       Flag: The five colors of the Jain flag represents the five Vows.

§  White: Non-violence

§  Red: Truthfulness

§  Yellow: Non-stealing

§  Green: Celibacy

§  Black: Non-attachment

(BUDDHISM)

INTRODUCTION TO BUDDHISM:

·       Buddhism began In India between 6^th-5^th Century BCE from the teachings of Gautama Buddha (563-483 BCE).

·       At the age of 29, Gautama left home and rejected his life of riches and embraced a lifestyle of ascetism or self-extreme discipline.

·       After 49 days of consecutive meditation, Gautam attained enlightenment under a Pipal tree at Bodhgaya, a village in Bihar.

·       Buddha deliver his first sermon in the village of Sarnath, near the city of Banaras in UP, this event is known as Dharma-Chakra-Pravartana (turning of the wheel of law).

·       Buddha asked his followers to avoid two extremes: Indulgence in worldly pleasure & The practice of strict asceticism and follow “Madhya Marg”.

TEACHINGS OF BUDDHA:

The main teachings of Buddha/Buddhism are encapsulated in the basic concept of Four noble truths and Eight-fold path.

FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS:

§  Suffering is the essence of the world.

§  Every suffering has a cause.

§  Suffering could be extinguished.

§  It can be achieved by following the Eight-fold path.

EIGHT-FOLD PATH:

§  Right Speech.

§  Right Thought.

§  Right Understanding.

§  Right Livelihood.

§  Right Mindfulness.

§  Right Action.

§  Right Concentration.

§  Right Effort.

SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM:

·       Mahayana: It believes in the heavenliness of Buddha and Idol worship of Buddha, Originated in northern India & Kashmir.

·       Hinayana: It believes in the original teachings of Buddha and does not believe in Idol worship of Buddha.

·       Zen: It is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the Tang dynasty.

·       Theravada: It is a sect of Hinayana Buddhism that developed in Sri Lanka.

·       Vajrayana: It means “The vehicle of the Thunderbolt”, also known as Tantric.

BUDDHIST COUNCIL:

·       First council:

§  Under the patronage of “Ajatshatru”

§  Presided by Monk “Mahakasyapa”

·       Second council:

§  Under the patronage of “Kalasoka”

§  Presided by Monk “Sabakami”

·       Third council:

§  Under the patronage of “Ashoka”

§  Presided by Monk “Moggaliputta Tissa”

·       Fourth council:

§  Under the patronage of “Kanishka”

§  Presided by Monk “Vasumitra”

MUDRAS RELATED TO BUDDHA;

1.      Bhumisparsha Mudra: It represents the moment of Buddha attaining enlightenment.

2.      Dhyana Mudra: This Mudra was used by Buddha during the final meditation under the Bodhi tree.

3.      Vitarka Mudra: It indicates teaching and discussion or intellectual debate.

4.      Abhaya Mudra: Shown by Buddha immediately after attaining enlightenment.

5.      Dharmachakra Mudra: Shown by Buddha while he preached the first sermon to a companion.

6.      Anjali Mudra: This mudra signifies greetings, devotion and adoration.

7.      Uttarabodhi Mudra: This mudra is known for charging one with energy.

8.      Varada Mudra: This mudra indicates charity, compassion or granting wishes.

9.      Karana Mudra: This mudra signifies expelling demons and negative energy.

10. Vajra Mudra: This mudra signifies the importance of Knowledge or supreme wisdom.

BODHISATTVAS:

·       Bodhisattvas are enlightened individuals who delay entering heaven in order to assist others in achieving enlightenment.

·       In Buddhism, the Boddhisattva ideal reflects the highest moral principle of wisdom and discipline for the pleasure of all sentients beings.

MODULE:3

(DEVELOPMENT OF MAHAJANAPADAS)

MAHAJANAPADAS:

·       Mahajanapadas were 16 kingdoms that existed in ancient India from 6^th-4^th centuries BCE (2^nd urbanization period)

·       Mahajanapadas were mainly of 2 types:

§  Ganasanghas (oligarchic republics)

§  Monarchy

·       Mahajanapadas flourished in a belt stretching from Gandhara in the North-west to Anga in the eastern part of Indian sub-continent. Pallavimohanan2904@gmail.com

EMERGENCE OF MAHAJANAPADAS FROM JANAPADAS:

·       The Janapadas were the major kingdoms of Vedic / later Vedic period (around 15^th Century).

·       By 6^th Century BCE, there were approximately 22 different Janapadas.

·       Later During 6^th Century BCE, these 22 Janapadas were turned into 16 Mahajanapadas due to Socio-economic developments, mainly due to the use of iron tools in agriculture and military, along with religious and political developments led to the rise of the Mahajanapadas (which were 16 in numbers).

·       But in the 6^th Century, out of 16 Mahajanapadas, only 4 powerful kingdoms remained:

§  Magadha (Important rulers: Bimbisara, Ajatasatru)

§  Avanti (              “                    : Pradyota)

§  Kosala (              “                    : Prasenjit)

§  Vatsa (                “                    :Udayana)

THE 16 MAHAJANAPADAS ARE AS FOLLOWS:

·       Magadha

·       Avanti

·       Kosala

·       Vatsa

·       Anga

·       Kashi

·       Asmaka

·       Kuru

·       Matsya

·       Malla

·       Panchala

·       Shursena

·       Chedi

·       Gandhara

·       Kamboja

·       Vajji

(RISE OF MAGADHA EMPIRE)

INTRODUCTION:

·       In the age of Buddha (6^th-5^th Century BCE) we find 16 large states called Mahajanpadas.

·       Magadh emerged as the most powerful & prosperous kingdom in North India from 6^th– 4^th Century BCE.

·       Its real founders were Bimbisara & Ajatashatru who founded the first dynasty of Magadha empire called Haryanka Dynasty.

·       Magadha empire was ruled by following three Dynasties:

§  Haryanka Dynasty (Bimbisara, Ajatasatru)

§  Shishunaga Dynasty (Shishunaga, Kalasoka)

§  Nanda Dynasty (Mahapadma Nanda, Dhana Nanda)

HARYANKA DYNASTY:

   Bimbisara (547-495 BCE)- Religion: Unknown

·       His main Way of Geographical extension was through matrimonial alliance.

·       He had three wives/queens: Kosaladevi (bring Kasi as a dowry gift), Chellana and Khema.

·       However, he defeated Brahmadatta, the ruler of Anga and annexed his kingdom.

·       He maintained friendly relationship with the king of Avanti.

·       He died as a tragic death.

   Ajatasatru (495-462 BCE)- Religion: Jainism to Buddhism

·       He took the thrown of Magadh by killing his father Bimbisara and shifted capital to Patliputra.

·       His main way of Geographical extension was through conquest.

·       He even declared war against his maternal uncle Prasenjit of Kosala.

·       He was killed at the behest of Palaka, the king of Avanti.

·       According to Jain & Buddhist texts, several successors of Ajatasatru ruled for Magadh for 166 years (it includes: Aniruddha, Manda & Nagadasaka).

SHISHUNAGA DYNASTY: (413-345 BCE)

·       According to Sri Lankan chronicles, the people of Magadha revolted during the reign of Nagadasaka and placed

Shishunaga as the king (a viceroy of Kasi in the Nagadasaka reign).

    Shishunaga

·       He was a viceroy of Kasi before becoming king of Magadha and shifted capital at Girivraja.

·       He destructed the power of Avanti and Avanti became a part of the Magadhan empire and continues till the end of the Mauryan rule.

·       He re-shifted the capital to Vaishali.

    Kalasoka

·       He was a son of Shishunaga.

·       He shifted the capital to Patliputra.

·       He conducted 2^nd Buddhist council at Vaishali.

NANDA DYNASTY: (345-321 BCE)

·       This was the first non-Kshatriya dynasty.

   Mahapadma Nanda

·       Known as the “first historical emperor of India” (Chandragupta Maurya is the first emperor of India).

·       Some sources believe him a son of a Sudra women and some believes him as a son of a barber and a courtesan.

·       He added Kalinga to Magadh and also acquired Kosala.

   Dhana Nanda

·       He was a son of Mahapadma and the last ruler of Nanda Dynasty.

·       Alexander invaded North-Western India during his reign, but he could not proceed towards the Gangetic plains because of his army’s refusal.

·       He became unpopular due to his oppressive way of collecting taxes and finally, he was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya, along with Chanakya, who established Mauryan empire in Magadh.

CAUSES FOR THE RISE OF MAGADHA:

   Geographical factors

·       Magadha was located on the upper and lower parts of the Gangetic valley.

·       Its land had a fertile soil and it also receives enough rainfall.

·       Magadha was encircled by river from three sides.

   Economic factors

·       Magadha had huge copper and iron deposits.

·       Magadha had a large population which could be used for agriculture, mining, building cities and in the army.

·       The general prosperity of the people and the rulers.

   Cultural Factors

·       Magadhan society had an unorthodox character.

·       It had a good mix of Aryans and Non-Aryans.

·       Society was not so much dominated by the Brahmanas.

   Political Factors

·       Magadha had strong standing armies along with elephants in their army.

·       Development of advanced weaponry.

·       Development of good administrative system.

D/F ASPECTS (FEATURES) OF THE AGE OF MAHAJANAPADAS:

·       The emergence of new types of Towns.

·       Three types of villages existed (Typical villages, Suburban villages, Border villages)

·       The emergence of Guilds (Associations of craftsmen or merchants)

·       Trade routes

·       Use of money

·       Taxes

·       Agriculture

·       Legal and judicial system

·       Administrative system

·       Kinship

·       Conditions of women

·       Pottery

(PERSIAN/IRANIAN & GREEK INVASION AND INFLUENCE)

PERSIAN/IRANIAN INVASIONS OF INDIA:

   Cyrus

·       He founded the Persian empire in 550 BCE and dominated the adjoining areas until the time of Alexander the Great conquered the kingdom.

·       Among the foreigners/Persians Cyrus was the first to invade India (mainly north-western part of India)

   Cambyses (530-520 BCE)

·       He was the son of Cyrus but shifted his attention towards Egypt & Greece and had no time to launch an expedition towards India.

·       It leads to weaking of hold of Persia in the north-west frontiers of India.

   Darius I (520-486 BCE)

·       He, like Cyrus, shifted his interest towards India.

·       He built roads which significantly improved the communication among the provinces.

   Darius III

·       He employed Indian soldiers against Greeks and even sent them to fight Alexander.

IMPACT OF PERSIAN INVASIONS:

·       Establishment of trade relationship between India and Persia.

·       Large number of Persian nobles were employed in the courts of the Indian King.

·       The Persian coinage system influenced Indian coins.

·       Kharoshti script used in Ashokan Inscriptions was derived from Aramaic.

GREEK INVASIONS OF INDIA:

·      After Persians, Greeks were the 2^nd to invade India in the 4^th Century BCE.

Alexander (356-323 BCE): Introduction

·       He was born in Pella (Father: Phillip & Mother: Olympus).

·       Aristotle played the role of his instructor between 343 and 341 BCE.

·       Alexander was never satisfied with what he had and always longing for more.

Alexander’s Invasion of India:

·       After defeating the Persian ruler, he crossed the Hindukush mountains and strengthened his position in Kabul.

·       Alexander moved through the dense jungles of Ohind, then after crossing the Indus River, with the help of Ambi (king of Taxila) he marched towards Jhelum.

·       The greatest of Alexander’s battles in India was against Porus in 326 BCE.

·       After defeating Porus he gave him back his kingdom as a gift.

·       When Alexander expressed his desire to capture further, then in 325 BCE his troops threatened to mutiny.

·       Alexander after returning back to Macedonia, dies of a fever in 323 BCE.

·       After Alexander, his general Seleucus took control of many of the provinces of Macedonian empire.

IMPACT OF GREEK INVASIONS ON INDIA:

·       Establishment of trade relations between India and Greece.

·       Greek settlements were seen on both the western and eastern coast in India.

·       Indian philosophy, religion, astronomy, mathematics were influenced by the Greek Invasion.

·       Greek sculpture influenced Indian Sculpture, giving rise to Gandhara school of Art.

·       Indians adopted the Greek idea of minting Coins of particular shapes.

·       Political impact:

§  Powerful monarchies like Magadha were emerged.

§  Fortification of empires started to protect themselves from further invasions.

§  Smaller and weaker kingdoms were merged into the larger ones.

§  After Alexander, Seleucus sent an ambassador called Megasthanese to reside In the Court Maurya’s at Patliputra.

MODULE:4

(MAURYAN EMPIRE: MAJOR/MINOR RULERS)

ORIGIN: ESTABLISHMENT OF MAURYAN EMPIRE (321-185 BCE)

·       In the 4^th Century BCE, the Nanda Dynasty ruled Magadha.

·       Dhana Nanda was the last ruler of Nanda Dynasty and maintained a huge army but lacks administration ability.

·       He became unpopular due to his oppressive way of collecting taxes

·       Finally, he was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya, along with Chanakya, who established Mauryan empire in Magadha.

CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (321-297 BCE)

Early rise to Power:

·       According to Buddhist sources:

§  Chandragupta’s mother took shelter at Patliputra after the death of his father, who was a chief of village.

§  Later the child was handed to Cowherd then to hunter.

§  Boy’s personality impressed Chanakya, who took the boy to Taxila and educated him.

·       According to Mudrarakshasa:

§  Chandragupta was a Mauryan Putra.

·       According to Jain tradition:

§  Chandragupta was a son of barber.

§  When Chanakya was dismissed and disrespected in the Dhana Nanda’s, he took vow to destroy the Nanda’s.

§  In 322 BCE, after training Chandragupta in the art of warfare, overthrown the Nanda’s with Chandragupta as the emperor of Magadha.

Overview: After coming to Power:

·       At the age of 25 he overthrown the last ruler of Nanda Dynasty in 321 BCE with help of Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta.

·       Once having control over the Gangs valley, he moved towards North-West.

·       In 305 BCE, he again went to North-West in the compaign against Seleucus but in 303 BCE the war was concluded with a treaty in which Chandragupta obtained the trans-Indus region in exchange of 500 elephants given to Seleucus.

·       Later, Seleucus’s ambassador Megesthene lived at Patliputra for many years and finally leaved an excellent account of contemporary india in the form of Indica.

·       Towards the end of his life, he embraced Jainism and starved to death in the approved Jaina Fashion.

Extent of Mauryan Empire under Chandragupta Maurya:

·       Its dominions included the parts of Afghanistan, the ancient arena, the Punjab, parts of western UP, Bihar, Kathiawar.

·       During his reign, trade flourished, agriculture was regulated and weights and measures were standardized.

·       It was his reign when money came first into use, taxation, sanitation and famine relief became the concerns of the state.

BINDUSARA (297-272 BCE)

·       He was the son of Chandragupta Maurya and said to be a pleasure seeker.

·       His eldest son Susima was the in-charge of Taxila and the second son Ashoka was the in-charge of Ujjain.

·       Mauryan empire under Bindusara extended up to Mysore in the South.

ASHOKA (268-232 BCE)

·       Bindusara died in 272 BCE, leaving throne to his eldest son, however Ashoka was the Viceroy of Ujjain and Taxila during Bindusara’s reign.

·       Ashoka Challenged his brother for succession, and after four years of brutal warfare, he established his control of the Mauryan empire in 268 BCE.

·       In 1837, James Prinsep encoded an inscription written Brahmi script referring to a king called “Devanampiyadasi”.

The Kalinga War (261 BCE)

·       This war proved to be a turning point in the career of Ashoka and produced far reaching consequences not only in the history of India but also in the south-east Asia.

·       During this war around 1 lakh people were killed and 1.5 lakh people were held captive.

·       Before war he seems to be a follower of Lord Shiva but after war, he turned Buddhist and sought peace in Buddha’s teachings of love and ahimsa.

·       He gave up all kinds of violence and became a strict vegetarian.

·       He propagated his new religion by engraving his Dhamma.

Ashoka’s Dhamma policy:

·       It was neither a new religion nor a new political philosophy rather it was a way of life, a code of conduct and a set of principles to be adopted and practiced by the people at large.

·       It was written in Brahmi script and Prakrit language- both popular with the public.

Main features of Dhamma Policy:

Major rock edict XI contains an elaborate explanation of the Dhamma, apart from dealing with charity and kindship of humanity.

·       Prohibition of animal sacrifices (Edict 1).

·       Avoiding meaningless and expensive ceremonies and rituals (Edict 9).

·       Efficient Organisation of administration (Edict 6).

·       Liberty to brahmins, sramanas and maintenance of constant contact with rural people through the system of Dhammayatras (Edict 3).

·       Tolerance among all sects (Edict 7&8).

·       Replacement of Bherighosa (sound of war) by Dhammaghosa (sound of Peace) (Edict 13).

(FALL OF MAURYAS)

CAUSES OF DECLINE OF MAURYAN EMPIRE:

·       Brahmanical Reaction:

§  The anti-sacrifice attitude of Buddhism and Ashoka brought much loss to the Brahmanas, who lived on the gifts made to them in various kinds of sacrifices.

§  For ex: Shungas & Kanvas who captured Mauryan empire in North were Brahmanas. Similarly, Satavahanas who captured Mauryan empire in Deccan and Central India were also Brahmanas.

·       Financial crises:

§  The enormous expenditure on the maintenance of the huge army and payment to agents of the state leads to financial crisis in the Mauryan Empire.

§  Large grants made to the Buddhist monks by Ashoka made the royal treasury empty.

·       The partition of the empire:

§  After the death of Ashoka, the Mauryan empire split into two halves: western and eastern parts and this weakened the empire.

§  Weaknesses of the empire leads to various further foreign invasions.

·       Weak administration:

§  Later predecessors were not strong enough who could control the administration of such a vast empire.

§  Weak administration ultimately led to the dis-integration of empire.

·       Independence of the Provinces:

§  Dis-integration of empire led to emergence of various kingdoms. for ex: Jalauka ruled over Kashmir independently.

·       Oppressive rule:

§  As In the era of Bindusara, Citizens of Taxila complained about the misrule of corrupt bureaucrats, same happened in the era of Ashoka when he came the emperor.

·       Spread of the new material knowledge in the outlying areas:

§  Once the new knowledge of iron tools and weapons spread in the peripheral areas, Magadha lost its special advantage.

·       Internal Revolt:

§  During the rule of Brihadratha, there was an internal revolt led by his army chief Pushyamitra Shunga (which established the Shunga dynasty’s rule)

·       Foreign invasions:

§  Splitting of Mauryan empire after Ashoka’s death attracted many invasions from North-west.

·       Neglect of the north-west frontiers and absence of the boundary structure such as the great wall of China:

§  No barriers in the North-west, like the great wall of China, has been Constructed during the Mauryan empire which plays a role of barrier.

(ARTHASHASTRA)

ARTHASHASTRA:                                                                                                                

·       This book, written in Sanskrit, explains theories and concepts of state governance.

·       The Arthashastra is a treatise on politics, economics, military strategy attributed to the philosopher and prime Minister Kautilya.

·       It is believed that Arthashastra is a has been authored by kautilya as a manual for Chandragupta, teaching him on how to rule a kingdom.

CONTENT OF THE ARTHASHASTRA:

·       The welfare state:

§  Arthashastra lays the intellectual basis for India to become the World’s first welfare state.

§  He advocates for the protection of livelihoods, the poorer sections of society, consumer protection and even the welfare of convicts.

·       Good governance:

§  According to Arthashastra, effective governance is associated with peace and order, which may be achieved via the collaboration of many forces in a society.

§  According to Arthashastra, Economic governance is the goal, while political governance is the means or vice-versa.

·       Foreign trade:

§  According to kautilya, foreign trade is an essential component of every economic system.

§  He stated that international commerce should be encouraged by giving incentives such as tax exemptions to allow foreign traders to prosper.

·       Growth oriented public expenditure:

§  According to Kautilya, majority of the tax should be spent on creative endeavours and public welfare.

§  He stated that state should spend money on things like: national defense, public administration etc.

·       Taxation:

§  According to Kautilya, the state should collect taxes and provide social services

(INDICA)

INDICA:

·       Indica is a historical narrative of India under the time of the Maurya Dynasty.

·       It was written by Greek historian, diplomat Megesthenes.

CONTENT OF THE INDICA:

·       Administration:

§  Foreigners are well taken care of.

§  Foreigners who become ill are treated by physicians.

§  Foreigners who died in India are buried, and their goods are returned to their family.

·       Society:

§  India has no overseas colonies, and Indians have no colonies outside india.

§  India is a home to diverse ethnic groups.

§  The law respects everyone equally, yet it allows for uneven property distribution.

·       Economy:

§  The land of India is rich in gold, silver, copper and iron.

§  The plains of india are extremely fertile and irrigation is widely employed.

·       Flora and fauna:

§  India has a various diversity of trees and animals.

§  Indian elephants are comparably bigger in size than the Libyan elephants due to the abundance of food in Indian territory.

·       Food and clothing:

§  Liquor is produced from rice rather than barley.

§  Their robes are gold-embroidered and studded with precious stones, and they also dress in flowered muslin

·       Philosophy:

§  Megasthenes categorises intellectuals into two categories, one called the Brahmanas and the other as Sramanas.

·       History:

§  During early days, Indian like Greeks, lived on fruits and wore animal skin clothes.

·       Geography:

§  India was a quadrilateral-shaped country with the ocean on its southern and eastern edges.

MODULE:5

(DYNASTIES: SHUNGA DYNASTY)

FROM FALL OF MAURYAS TO RISE OF SHUNGA’S, KANVA’S, SATVAHANA’S AND KHARAVELA’S (Kalinga):

·       After the death of Ashoka in 232 BCE, the Mauryan empire (321-185 BCE) steadily disintegrated from 232-185 BCE as his successors were weak and were not able to keep the vast empire from fracturing away.

·       Independent kingdoms arose out of the provinces and finally Mauryan rule collapse in 185 BCE.          

·       The period from the collapse of Maurya’s to the rise of the Gupta’s (2^nd Century BCE-3^rd Century CE) in Indian history is known as the Post-Mauryan Period.

·       In north and Eastern India Mauryas were succeeded by Shungas followed by the Kanvas (185-73 BCE) and In the Deccan and Central India, Mauryas were succeeded by Satavahanas (73 BCE-194 CE).

ESTABLISHMENT OF SHUNGA DYNASTY: PUSYAMITRA SHUNGA

·       The Shunga dynasty was established in 185 BCE, about 50 years after the death of Ashoka.

·       Brihadratha, the last ruler of Mauryan empire, was assassinated by the then commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces: Pusyamitra Shunga.

·       Pusyamitra Shunga became the ruler of the Magadha, with Patliputra as its capital, and neighbouring areas.

·        Shunga dynasty during the reign of Pusyamitra Shunga was extended upto Narmada in the South, and controlled Jalandhar & Sialkot in the north-west, and the city of Ujjain in central India.

RULERS OF THE SHUNGA DYNASTY:

·      Pushyamitra Sunga (185-149 BCE)

·      Agnimitra (149-141 BCE)

·      Vsuajyestha (141-131 BCE)

·      Vasumitra (131-124 BCE)

·      Bhadraka (124-122 BCE)

·      Pulindhaka (122-119 BCE)

·      Ghosha ( 119-108 BCE)

·      Vajramitra (108-94 BCE)

·      Bhaghbadra (94-83 BCE)

·      Devabhuti (83-73 BCE)

RELIGIOUS POLICY and CULTURAL CONTRIBUTIONS:

·       After Ashoka’s bond with Dhamma and Buddhism, the Shungas are known for promoting Brahmanical Orthodoxy.

·       The Divyavadana gives stories of Pushyamitra’s cruelty and his hatred towards Buddhism.

·       Most notably, Patanjali’s Yogasutras and Mahabhasya were composed in this period.

·       The Script used by the Shunga’s was a variant of Brahmi, and was used to write the Sanskrit language.

EFFECTS OF THE SHUNGA DYNASTY:

·       Hinduism was revived under the Shungas.

·       The caste system was also revived with the rise of the Brahmanas.

·       The language of Sanskrit gained more prominence during this time.

·       The Shungas also patronized art & architecture and there was an increase in the usage of human figures & symbols in art during this period.

CONFLICTS AND SACRIFICES:

·       According to Patanjali’s Mahabhasya, there were Greek invasions during the rule of Shungas.

·       Malavika agnimitra refers to the conflict between Pushyamitra and Yajnasena, king of Vidarbha, and the victory of the Shunga’s.

·       Malavika agnimitra also narrates the story of military encounter between Prince Vasumitra and Yavana army on the banks of Indus River.

·       The last king of the Shunga Dynasty (Devabhuti) was assassinated by his minister Vasudeva Kanva, who founded Kanva Dynasty in 73 BCE.

(DYNASTIES: KANVA DYNASTY)

ESTABLISHMENT OF KANVA DYNASTY:

·       The Kanva dynasty was established by Vasudeva Kanva in 73 BCE.

·       Vasudeva Kanva was initially a minister of the Shunga’s emperor Devabhuti, who then assassinated the former emperor and usurped the throne.

·       Kings of Kanva dynasty

§  Vasudeva Kanva (73-64 BCE)

§  Bhumimitra (64-50 BCE)

§  Narayana (50-38 BCE)

§  Susarman (38-28 BCE)

·       Kanva dynasty reigned till 28 BCE.

FALL OF KANVAS:

·       The Puranas claim that Balipuccha, who started the Andhra dynasty, assassinated the final ruler of the Kanva dynasty.

·       The Satavahana dynasty’s defeat of the Kanva dynasty was a regional occurrence in Central India.

·       The Puranas claim that Andhra Simuka, an early Satavahana dynasty prince, rose to prominence and brought an end to Kanva control.

·       Kanva dynasty finally came to an end in 28 BCE.

(DYNASTIES: SATAVAHANAS)

ORIGIN/ESTABLISHMENT OF SATAVAHANA DYNASTY: (Doubt)

• It is believed that after the decline of the Maurya’s and before the advent of the Satavahanas, there must have been numerous small political principalities that were ruling in different parts of the Deccan (for about 100 years).
• After 100 years of the fall of Mauryan empire, in around 73 BCE Satavahanas emerged as the rulers of Deccan and Central India almost at the same time when Vasudeva Kanva assassinated the last emperor (Devabhuti) of Shunga Dynasty and founded Kanva dynasty.
• In 28 BCE, after 45 years of independent rule, Kanva dynasty during the reign of Susarman was captured by Satavahana dynasty under the reign of Satakarni I (3^rd ruler of Satavahana dynasty).
• Satavahanas are referred to as Andhras in the Puranas.
• Their greatest competitors were Shakas Kshatrapas of western India, who had established themselves in the upper Deccan and western India.

IMPORTANT RULERS OF SATAVAHANA DYNASTY:

Simuka:

·       He was the founder of satavahana dynasty.

·       He reigned

·       Hinduism, once again his reign.

·       He also built Jain and Buddhist temples.

Satakarni I:

·       He was the 3^rd king of the Satavahanas dynasty.

·       He expanded his empire by military conquest and conquered Kalinga after the death of Kharavela & also ruled over Madhya Pradesh.

·       After annexing the Godavari Valley, he assumed the title of “Lord of Dakshinapath”.

·       His wife Nayanika wrote the Naneghat inscription, which describe the king as Dakshinapatha-Pati.

·       Satakarni I performed many vedic sacrifices and made gifts of thousands of cows, horse, elephants, & heap of grains to Brahamanas.

·       Satakarni performed two Asvamedha and thereby established his supremacy in the country.

Gautamiputra Satakarni:

·       He is considered the greatest king of the Satavahana dynasty.

·       In the first 15 or 16 years of his reign he made his country free from foreign dominations of western Kshatrapas.

·       It is believed that dominions that were lost by Satavahanas in the upper deccan were again restored during his reign.

·       He called himself the only Brahmana who defeated the Shakas and destroyed many Kshatriya rulers.

·       His kingdom was extended from Krishna in the South to Malwa & Saurashtra in the North and Berar in the East to Konkan in the West.

·       He re-established the system of caste, as against of casteless foreigners Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas.

Vashishthiputra Pulumayi:

·       He was a son of Gautamiputra Satakarni.

·       His coins and inscriptions are found in Andhra.

·       According to Junagadh inscription, he was married to the daughter of Rudraman I.

·       He lost few territories of western India to Shaka-Kshatrapas.

Yajna Sri Satakarni:

·       He was the last ruler of Satavanaha dynasty.

·       He recovered north Konkan and Malwa from the Shaka rulers.

·       He was a lover of trade and navigation, as it is evident from the motif of a ship on his coins.

·       His coins have been found in Andhra, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.

ADMINISTRATION OF SATAVAHANA DYNASTY:

The administration of the Satavahana dynasty was entirely based on the Shastras, and it had the following structure:

·       Rajan or the king who was the ruler of the kingdom and rajas had their names inscribed on coins.

·       Maharathis, who had the power of granting villages and also had the privileges of maintain marital relations with the ruling family.

·       Mahasenapati, he as the governor of the province.

·        Mahatalavara.

SOCIAL ORGANISATION DURING SATAVAHANA DYNASTY

·       The four-fold Varna system was again revived under the most famous king Gautamiputra Satakarni of Satavahana dynasty: Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras.

·       The Satavahanas were the first rulers to make land grants to the Brahmanas.

·       Craft and commerce were flourished during this period.

·       King was named after his mother, it indicates that in their society mother enjoyed a great deal of importance.

RELIGION OF THE SATAVAHANAS DYNASTY:

·       The Satavahanas were Hindus who claimed Brahmanical status, but they made generous donations to Buddhist monasteries.

·       The Naneghat inscriptions of Nayanika, written on the walls of a Buddhist monastic cave, mentions that her husband Satakarni I performed several Vedic sacrifices, including Ashvamedha (horse sacrifices) and so on.

·       These inscriptions also tell us about records of large fees paid to Brahmin Priests.

·       In general, people in the Satavahanas period did not support any single religious group.

ECONOMIC SYSTEM DURING SATAVAHANA DYNASTY:

·       COINS:

§  Satavahanas created their own coins.

§  Coins were made up of Silver, Copper, Lead and Potin.

§  Animal motifs were found on the Satavahanas coins.

§  Many Satavahana coins bore the names of Satakarni and Pulumavi.

·       TRADE:

§  Trade was mainly carried through guilds (merchant associations).

§  The Indians carried on flourishing trade with foreign countries like Egypt, Greece and Italy.

§  Export items included: Sugar, animal skins, cotton fabrics, pepper, Jewels and ornaments.

§  Import items included: Roman wine, tin, lead and glass etc.

PAINTINGS AND ARCHITECTURE:

·       The Satavahana paintings are the earliest surviving specimens and they are found only at the Ajanta Caves.

·       In Satavahana phase, many temples called Chaityas and Monasteries called Viaharas were cut out of the solid rocks in the north-western Deccan or Maharashtra with great precision and patience.

·       They also constructed large no of stupas at Amravati Bhattiprolu.

·       Ashokan stupas were enlarged, the earlier bricks and wood works being replaced with stone works.

DECLINE OF THE SATAVAHANAS:

·       Pulamavi IV is considered the last king of the main Satavahanas dynasty.

·       He ruled until 225 AD. After his death, the empire fragmented into five smaller kingdoms.

·       The Ikshyakus replaced the Satavahanas in the eastern region at the beginning of the 3^rd Century AD.

·       The west was ruled by the Abhiras, the south-west by the Chutus, the south-east by the Pallavas, and the northern provinces by a collateral branch of the Satavahanas.

MODULE:6

(FOREIGN INVASIONS)

INDO GREEKS: The Bactrian Greeks moved into the south of the Hindi Kush area by the early 2^nd century BCE. Indo-Greeks are those groups of these Bactrian Greeks that ruled over north-western India b/w the 2^nd century BCE and early 1^st Century CE.

HOW INDO-GREEKS ESTABLISHED THEIR RULE IN INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT:

·       After the decline of the Maurya’s, northern India was split into several kingdoms.

·       In the Magadh region, the Sungas came to power in about 185 BCE. After that Kanvas came to power who were defeated by the Satavahanas originally from the deccan.

·       North-west India was constantly under the attack from powers in central Asia and North-west.

·       The Indo Greek or the Graeco-Indian kingdom has established around 180 BCE when the Graeco-Bacterian king Demetrius invaded the Indian Sub-continent.

INITIAL PRESENCE OF GREEKS IN INDIA:

·       After alexander invaded the north-west part of the sub-continent, one of his general , Seleucus Nicator founded the Seleucid Empire.

·       Seleucid had conflicts with the mighty Chandragupta Maurya, he ceded large parts of the west of the Indus, including the Hindu Kush, present-day Afghanistan and Baluchistan to the Mauryan King in exchange of 500 elephants.

·        After this, Megathenes was sent to reside at Chandragupta Maurya’s court.

INDO-GREEK KINGDOM:

·       The Indo-Greek Kingdom was ruled by over 30 Hellenistic (Greek) kings in the north-west and north India from the 2^nd century BCE to the beginning of the 1^st century CE.

·       The kingdom started when Greco-Bacterian King Demetrius (son of Euthydemus I) invaded India around 180 BCE.

·       He conquered southern Afghanistan and parts of Punjab.

·       For about 25 years, the indo-greek kingdoms were under the Euthydemus rule.

·       The civil war among the many Bactrian kings after the death of Demetrius facilitated the independent kingdom of Apollodotus I, who can be regarded as the first indo-greeks king (whose rule was not from Bactria)

·       His kingdom included Gandhara and western Punjab.

·       Most of the Indo-Greek kings were Buddhists and Buddhism flourished under their rule.

·       Greek influence I mostly seen in art and architecture, sculpture, particularly the Ganghara school of art.

FEATURES OF INDO-GREEKS:

·       IDEOLOGY: The Greek expansion into Indian territory may have been intended to protect Greek population In India, and to protect Buddhist faith from the religious persecutions of the Sungas

·       RELIGION: In addition to the worship of the classical pantheon of the Greek deities found on their coins, the indo-greeks also involved faith, particularly Buddhism along with Hinduism and Zoroastrianism.

·       ART: The influence of Indo-greeks on the art and architecture can been seen from the Gandhara school of art.

·       ECONOMY: As per the coins found, indo-greeks were involved in large mining operations.

DECLINE OF THE INDO-GREEK KINGDOM:

·       The last Indo-Greek king was Strato II.

·       He ruled the Punjab region until 55 BC, some say until 10 AD.

·       Their rule ended with the invasion of the Indo-Scythian (Sakas).

·       It is believed that Greek people lived for several centuries more in India under the Indo-Parthians and the Kushanas.

(SHAKA-PARTHIAN)

A.   SHAKAS

ORIGIN of SCYTHIANS/INDO-SCYTHIANS/SHAKAS:

·       The succession of King Chashtana marks the beginning of the Shaka era.

·       Shakas also known as Scythians were nomadic pastoral nomads from Iran.

·       In 2^nd century BCE, central Asian nomadic tribes and tribes from the Chinese area entered the Scythian-inhabited territory of modern-day Kazakhstan.

·       This encouraged the Scythians to migrate to Bacteria and Parthia.

·       Then they marched towards India after conquering the Parthian monarch. Indo-Scythians are Scythians who moved to India.

·       The Shakas possessed a greater Indian dominion than the Indo-Greeks.

SHAKAS KINGDOM:

·       Maues/Moga (1^st century BC) was the first Shaka monarch of India, establishing Shaka dominance in Gandhara and the Indus valley.

·       The Indo-Scythians consolidated their control over north-western India, defeating the Indo-Greeks and other local kingdoms.

·       The Indi-Scythians appears to have been Buddhist, and many of their customs appear to have maintained those of the Indi-Greeks.

·       After the Satavahanas monarch Gautami Putra Satakarni conquered the Indo-Scythians in the 2^nd century CE, the Shaka king’s influence began to wane

NOTABLE RULERS:

·       MAUES (98/50 BCE-60/57 BCE)

·       CHASHTANA (78 CE-130 CE)

·       RUDRADAMAN I (130 CE-150 CE)

CONTRIBUTIONS OF SHAKAS:

·       COINAGE:

§  The shakas currency is typically of great aesthetic quality.

§  The western sataraps maintained a high-quality but conventional coinage until the 4^th century.

·       ART & ARCHITECTURE:

§  Several Gandharan sculptures depict foreigners dressed in soft tunics and wearing the pointed headdress typical of Scythians.

§  Numerous stone palettes discovered in Gandhara are regarded as good examples of the Shaka art.

·       INDIAN LITERATURE:

§  In India, the Indo-Scythians were known as “Shaka”.

§  Shakas are mentioned multiple times in writings such as the Puranas, Manusmritis, Ramayana, Mahabharata and many more.

DECLINE OF THE SHAKAS:

·       After their defeat at the hands of Satavahanas Emperor Gautami Putra Satakarni, the Shaka empire began to decline.

·       The Shakas ruled north-west India and Pakistan until the death of Azes II (12 BCE), when the territory was taken over by the Kushanas.

·       Their dominion in India ended in 4^th century CE, when the last western satrap shaka monarch, Rudrasimha III, was defeated by Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty.

B.   PARTHIANS

ORIGIN:

·       The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was a Parthian Kingdom founded by Gondophares, and active from 19 CE to 226 CE.

·       At their zenith, thy ruled an area covering parts of eastern Iran, various parts of Afghanistan and the north-west regions of the Indian Subcontinent.

NOTABLE RULERS:

·       GONDOPHARES I

·       SARPEDONES as GONDOPHARES II

·       ABDAGASES

·       ORTHAGNES as GONDOPHARES III

·       UBOUZANES briefly ruled

·       ASPAVARMA as GONDOPHARES IV

FEATURES OF PARTHIANS:

·       ARCHEOLOGY AND SOURCES:

§  The city of Taxila is thought be have been a capital of the Indo-Parthians.

§  The nearly temple of Jindial is usually interpreted as a Zoroastrian fire temple from the period of the Indo-Parthians.

·       RELIGION:

§  Unlike the Indo-Greeks or Indo-Scythians, there are no explicit records of Indo-Parthian rulers supporting Buddhism.

§  They are thought to have retained Zoroastrianism, being of Iranian extraction themselves.Further, coins of the Hindu deity Shiva have also been found issued in he reign of Gondophares I.

·       ARCHITECTURE:

§  Buddhist sculptures: The statues found at sirkap in the alte Scythian to parthian level suggest an already developed state of Gandhara art at the time or even before Parthian rule.

§  Stone palettes: Numerous stone palettes found in Gandhara are considered as good representatives of Indo-Parthian art.

·       ECONOMY:

§  The commercial growth of the Parthians began with the infrastructure and It was inherited by the Parthians by the Seleucid empire.

§  The Parthians secured the roads and cities that Seleucid provided them to solidify their position in the form of international traders.

(KUSHANAS)

ORIGIN:

·       The word Kushan is derived from the Chinese term Guishang, which was used to denote one branch of the Yuezhi in ancient literature.

·       The Kushanas empire was a syncretic empire founded in the early 1^st century by the Yuezhi in the Bactrian land.

·       Kushanas are one of the five lineages of the Yuezhi tribe that resided near the Chinese border or in central Asia.

·       They finally surpassed the other Yuezhi tribes in power.

KUSHANAS KINGDOM IN INDIA:

·       In the 1^st century CE, they pushed eastward towards India, defeating the Parthians and the Shakas.

·       The Kushanas dominion linked the Indian Ocean’s seagoing trade with the silk Road’s commerce through the long-Civilized Indus Valley.

·       Kushanas governed a realm that stretched from the Aral Sea through present day Uzbekistan, Afghanistan and Pakistan into northern India at its peak.        

NOTABLE RULERS:

·       KADPHISES (30 CE-80 CE):

·       VIMA KADPHISES (95 CE-127 CE):

·       KANISHKA (127 CE- 150 CE):

FEATURES OF KUSHANAS:

·       RELIGION: Development of Greco-Buddhism, a fusion of Hellenistic and Buddhist cultural elements, expanded into central and northern Asia as Mahayana Buddhism.

§  Kanishka has earned renown in Buddhist tradition for having convened a great Buddhist council in Kashmir in 72 CE.

·       ART: The art and culture of Gandhara constitutes the best-known expressions of Kushanas influences to westerners.

§  Several direct depictions of Kushanas from Gandhara have been discovered, represented with a tunic, belt & trousers and play the role of devotees to the Buddha.

·       ADMINISTRATION: The vast Kushan empire, extending from central Asia to Bihar and from Kashmir to Sind was governed through an organized administrative system, probably in three tiers, at central, provincial and local levels.

§  The Kushanas seem to have followed the earlier existing pattern of the Indo-Greeks and Parthians by appointing Ksatrapas and mahaksatrapas.

·       COINS: It was the Kushanas empire, who introduced the first gold coins of India.

§  The coin designs usually follow the styles of the preceding Greco-Bactrian rulers, with a deity on one side and the king on the other side.

·       INSCRIPTIONS: The inscriptions issued by the Kushanas rulers include texts in Bactrian, written in Greek script and in Prakrit written in Brahmi or Kharosthi script.

DECLINE OF KUSHANAS:

·       After the death of Vasudeva I in 225 CE, the Kushan empire split into western and eastern halves.

·       The Persian Sassanid Empire soon subjugated the western Kushanas (in Afghanistan), losing Bactria and other territories.

·       The eastern Kushanas kingdom was based in the Punjab.

·       Around 270 CE, their territories on the Gangetic plain became independent under local dynasties such as the Yaudheyas.

·       Further, in the mid of fourth century the Gupta Empire under SamudraGupta subjugated them.

·       Later, the invasions of the white Huns in the fifth century, and later the expression of Islam, ultimately wiped out those remnants of the Kushan Empire.

MODULE:7

(GUPTA DYNASTY: MAJOR/MINOR RULERS)

RISE OF GUPTA POWER:

·       According to Allahabad Inscriptional Pillar evidences Sri Gupta was the founder of the Gupta dynasty.

·       Sri Gupta was succeeded by his son Maharaja Ghatotkacha.

·       Sri Gupta is said to have ruled Magadha from 240 CE to 280 CE and his son Ghatotkacha ruled Magadha from 280 CE to 320 CE.

·       Sri Gupta and Ghatokacha has been referred with the title of Maharaja.

CHANDRAGUPTA I:

INTRODUCTION:

·       Chandragupta I was the son and successor of Maharaja Ghatotkacha.

·       Chandra Gupta I was the first Gupta ruler, who assumed the imperial title of ‘Maharaja Dhiraj’ means ‘supreme king of great king’.

·       His main achievement lies in establishing a stable and strong government within a short period of fifteen years (320 CE to 335 CE).

·       On the basis of Vayu Purana, scholars generally accept that Chandra Gupta I ruled over Saket (Awadh), Prayag (Allahabad) and Magadha (South Bihar).

MATRIMONIAL ALLIANCE:

·       Like several kings of ancient India Chandra Gupta I also strengthened himself by the significant marriage alliance with Lichavis.

·       The Lichavis were a powerful dynasty, who then, controlled considerable portions of Bihar and perhaps even Nepal.

·       As per inscriptions Chandra Gupta I married Lichavi princess, Sri Kumardevi.

·       Marriage with Kumardevi added to political power and prestige of Chandra Gupta I.

SAMUDRAGUPTA (important):

INTRODUCTION:

·       Samudra Gupta was a son of Chandra Gupta I.

·       The Allahabad pilar inscriptions refers to the appointment of Samudra Gupta by Chandra Gupta I.

·       Dr.VA Smith has described Samudra Gupta as the ‘Napoleon of India’ due to his conquests in all direction of India.

·       Contemporary epigraphs, such as the Eran inscriptions, credits him with the overthrowing of ‘the whole tribe of kings on earth’.

CONQUEST OF SAMUDRA GUPTA:

·       Since Samudra Gupta was deliberately selected by his father as the next king, he had to deal with rival princes who coveted the throne.

·       When Samudra Gupta came in power, there were political disturbances in his kingdom but he maintained law and order.

·       All the time of his accession politically India presented a dark picture. Due to lack of powerful empire and emperor, India was divided and distributed into a number of petty principalities.

·       All above issues of political instability, petty principalities and independent rulers were solved by Samudra Gupta by following the policy of Digvijay.

·       According to the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudra Gupta, the places and the countries conquered and annexed or liberated by Samudra Gupta are as follows:

§  Northern Conquest: It includes North or Aryavarta consisting of Nine kings along with several princess of Aryavarta.

§  Southern Conquest: It includes Deccan and South India i.e., Dakshinapatha consisting of about twelve kings with more than 2 years of compaign.

§  Subjugation of Forest tribes: Border tribes accepted his rule without much resistant.

§  Conquest of shakas & Kushanas: Samudra Gupta commanded respect amongst independent rulers of many neighboring states.

RELATION WITH CEYLON

·       Samudra Gupta had very cordial relation with Ceylon as his allowed the construction of monastery in Gaya on the request of Meghavarman a Buddhist king of Ceylon.

EXTENT OF SAMUDRA GUPTA EMPIRE

·       According to Allahabad inscription Samudra Gupta never knew any defeat.

·       He has unified greater part of India under him.

·       According to Dr. RC Majumdar the empire of Samudra Gupta “comprised nearly the whole of northern India, with the exception of Kashmir, Western Punjab, Western Rajputana, Sindh and Gujarat”.

·       It also included the highlands of Chhattisgarh and Orissa and a long stretch of territory along the eastern coast extending as far as south as Chinleput and probably even further.

ESTIMATE OF SAMUDRA GUPTA

·       A successful conqueror: Harishena, Samudra Gupta’s court poet mention, “Samudra Gupta was skillful in engaging in a hundred battles of various kinds, whose only ally was the strength of his own arm”

·       Founder of an Empire: Though Chandragupta I laid the foundations of Gupta Empire but Samudra Gupta was the real founder as it was under his reign when Gupta empire became so powerful with broad geographical expansion.

·       Statesmanship: He was engaged in a hundreds of battles but he did not blindly go on conquering one region after another.

·       A great administrator: The Allahabad Pillar inscription described his allocation of duties and responsibilities to a council of ministers with very well-organized central government.

·       Learning & lover of Art: He has many scholars in his court like; Harishena and Vasudeva.

·       Revival of Brahminism: He revived the Ashwamedh which had not being performed for a longer time. He brought back Hinduism with full honour which is also reflected through the images of Lakshmi, Durga, Saraswati and Ganga on his Gold coins.

CHANDRAGUPTA II (important)

INTRODUCTION:

·       Chandra Gupta II was a son of Samudra Gupta.

·       Chandra Gupta II was the 2^nd great king of Gupta Dynasty.

·       Chandra Gupta II followed the footsteps of his father Samudra Gupta, from military conquest to diplomacy conquest.

·       The inscriptions, coins and writings of Chinese travelers Fa-Hien are the main sources of the information about Chandra Gupta II.

WAR WITH SHAKAS AND ITS EFFECT:

·       The Shakas were an important dynasty who had been ruling in western India since the later half of the first century CE.

·       The Greatest military achievements of Chandra Gupta II was the conquest of the Shakas (388 CE to 409 CE) who were ruling in Gujarat and Kathiawar peninsula.

·       The conquest of western India enriched the Gupta Empire by its extension to Arabian Sea and establishment of direct over-sea trade & contacts with Romans.

·       Thus, the western boundary of the Gupta Empire became secure and Gupta’s gained control over the ports of Western India.

POLICY OF MATRIMONIAL ALLIANCE:

·       Matrimonial Alliances occupy a prominent place in the foreign policies of Gupta’s.

·       Chandra Gupta I had strengthened his imperial position by Matrimonial Alliance with dynasty of Lichchavis.

·       Samudra Gupta is said to have accepted the gifts presents of kings of Ceylon.

·       Chandra Gupta II continued the policy of Matrimonial Alliances followed by his grand father

EXTENT OF CHANDRA GUPTA II

·       Chandra Gupta II has extended the Gupta Empire in all directions.

·       The empire was extended to Bengal in East, Punjab in the north west, Gujarat & Saurashtra in the East and South till Arabian sea.

COINS OF CHANDRAGUPTA II

·       Gupta Kings did much in the field of coin age.

·       Chandra Gupta II introduce the most important innovation in the coinage along with gold coins of his ancestors he also introduced silver and copper coins.

·       He issued three types of coins which varied in weight from 132grains, 126 grains and 121 grains.

·       He also introduces some new types of coins like; Umbrella coins, horseman type etc.

ESTIMATES OF CHANDRAGUPTA II

·       A brilliant Administrator: Chandra Gupta II perfected the administrative machinery as divided his territory into province and districts. Officers of these divisions were assisted by the local representative bodies.

·       A Successful Conqueror: Chandra Gupta II by his brilliant conquest not only put an end to foreign dominations (Kushanas and Bengal western straps) but also established peace and prosperity in his vast empire.

·       A Great Diplomat: Chandra Gupta II just like his father and grandfather strengthen his imperial position by matrimonial alliance with the powerful regional dynasties.

·       A Patron of Literature: He is said to have graced by navratnas or Nine gems like Kalidasa, Varahmihira, Vasubandhu, etc.

KUMARGUPTA

INTRODUCTION:

·       Kumar Gupta was a son of Chandra Gupta II.

·       He succeeded Chandra Gupta II in about 414 CE and had two wives and two sons.

·       There was a brisk trade during the period of Kumar Gupta.

·       Towards the end of his reign, the peace of the Empire was rudely disturbed and after this the Empire was invaded by the Pushyamitra, a tribe of unknown origin.

SKANDA GUPTA

INTRODUCTION:

·       There is a controversy regarding Skanda Gupta’s succession.

·       The Bhitari seal of Kumar Gupta makes Puru Gupta the son and successor of Kumar Gupta.

·       However, scholars like Smith, Pannala, Raychaudhari hold that the Skanda Gupta was the immediate successor of Kumar Gupta.

·       Skanda Gupta ruled for a brief period of about 12 years.

ADMINISTRATION OF SKANDA GUPTA

·       Like other Gupta’s he also was not only a great warrior but also an administrator of great caliber.

·       His administration did not become weak even during foreign invasions after Kumar Gupta.

·       He shifted his capital from Patliputra to Ayodhya because it was located in the center of his Empire.

·       Reconstruction of Sudarshan Lake, built at the time of Chandra Gupta Maurya, is a notable event of his period.

(VAKATAKA DYNASTY)

INTRODUCTION:

·       The Vakatakas were the contemporaries of the Guptas in Northern India.

·       They succeeded Satavahanas in Peninsular India and ruled Deccan for more than two and a half centuries.

·       A large number of copperplate land grant charters issued by the Vakatakas to the Brahmans, have helped in reconstructing their history.

·       Culturally, the Vakataka kingdom became a channel for transmitting Brahmanical ideas and social institutions to the south.

ORIGIN:

·       The Vakataka were Brahmins.

·       Under the patronage of the Vakataka king, Harisena, the rock-cut Buddhist Viharas and Chaityas of the Ajanta caves were built.

·       They used Sanskrit and Prakrit inscriptions which are similar to those belonging to the southern Pallavas.

·       The Vakatakas belonged to the Vishnuvriddha gotra of the Brahmanas and performed numerous Vedic sacrifices.

RULERS:

·       VINDHYASHAKTI (REIGN: 250 – 270 CE)

·       PRAVARASENA I (REIGN: 270 – 330 AD)

PRAVARAPURA-NANDIVARDHANA BRANCH

(This branch ruled over Pravarapura (in present Wardha, Maharashtra), Mansar and Nandivardhan in the present Nagpur district)

·       RUDRASENA I (REIGN: 340 – 365 CE)

·       PRITHVISENA Ⅰ (C. 365 – 390 CE)

·       RUDRASENA II (REIGN: 390 – 395 CE)

·       PRAVARASENA II (REIGN: 395 – 440 CE)

·      NARENDRASENA (C. 440 – 460 CE)

·       PRITHVISENA Ⅱ (C. 460 – 480 CE)

VATSAGULMA BRANCH

This branch ruled over the territory between the Sahyadri Range and the Godavari River with its capital at Vatsagulma (present Washim, Maharashtra). Its founder was Sarvasena, the son of Pravarasena.

·       SARVASENA (REIGN: 330 – 355 CE)

·       VINDYASHAKTI Ⅱ/VINDHYASENA (C. 355 – 400 CE)

·       HARISENA (REIGN: 475 – 500 AD)

EXTENT & DECLINE OF DYNASTY:

·       The Vakataka kingdom extended from the southern extremities of Malwa and Gujarat in the north to the Tungabhadra River in the south, and from the Arabian Sea in the west to the edges of Chhattisgarh in the east.

·       With the death of Harisena, the rule of the Vakatakas ended and the Nalas, the Kadambas, the Kalachuris and Yashodharman of Malwa occupied their territory.

(DECLINE OF GUPTA DYNASTY)

·       The Great Gupta empire which was founded by Sri Gupta and bravely built up by Samudra Gupta and Chandra Gupta II began to decline an ultimately collapsed completely towards the end of 6th Century A.D

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE DECLINE OF GUPTA DYNASTY:

·       Weak Successor:

§  Till Skanda Gupta all the rulers were in a position to extend or maintained the kingdom

§  But the later Gupta’s who followed Skanda Gupta were weak & incompetent and therefore Gupta Power came to an end

·       Foreign Invasions:

§  The stability of Gupta Empire was seriously threatened by Pushyamitra during the time of Kumar Gupta, Though Skanda Gupta beated them.

§  But due to weakness of later Gupta’s, the Gupta Empire had to came to an end with hands of further Invasions.

·       Absence of Strong Central Authority:

§  The central government weak and defective after the death of Skanda Gupta.

§  Many chiefs revolted against later Gupta rulers and established their independent kingdoms towards the middle of 6^th Century.

·       Change of Religion:

§  Another cause contributed to the fall of Gupta’s was shift from Hinduism to Buddhism.

§  The early king of Gupta dynasty were followers of Brahmanism whereas later Gupta embraced Buddhism, this has a profound impact on the military enterprises of the country thus led to decline of Empire.

·       Weak Economic Condition:

§  The system of Tax collection did not work well after Skanda Gupta.

§  Considerable fall in economic condition has affected the military strength of a country. Thus, led to the decline of Empire.

·       Neglected The Borders of The Empire:

§  The later Gupta’s did not pay much attention to the borders of the empire.

§  As a result, there were many foreign invasions which led to the decline of Empire.

·       Vast Empire:

§  The Gupta Empire was very vast and could only be control by powerful rulers like Samudra Gupta and Chandra Gupta II.

§  During later Gupta’s the empire was divided into number of provinces, each province had its governor and disloyalty of the governors led to the decline of Empire.

(HUN INVASIONS)

INTRODUCTION:

§  Hunas were the nomadic savages or tribes who lived in the neighborhood of China.

§  Studies shows that the Hunas extended their kingdom from the borders of Persia to Khotan in Central Asia.

§  There were two branches of Hunas that advanced towards the west: One branch moved towards the Roman Empire and the other branch towards India.

§  The other branch that advanced towards India was referred to as the White Hunas.

REASONS OF INVASION:

§  After the death of Samudra Gupta there was less control of the Guptas in Western India.

§  During this time, the Hunas armed forces attacked the Gupta dynasty.

§  They won the region of Jammu, Kashmir, Himachal, Rajasthan, Punjab, and parts of Malwa.

§  Tormana was the white Hun leader.

1^ST MAJOR INVASION (458 CE):

§  The Hunas entered the Indian Sub-continent from the Kabul valley after defeating the Kushanas along the Indus.

§  Due to unguardedness of Gangetic valley in northeast, Hunas entered the Punjab in 458 CE.

§  The Hunas kept on invading India until they suffered a crushing defeat by the Gupta Emperor Skanda Gupta.

§   

2^ND MAJOR INVASION (470 CE):

§  The Hunas waited till 470 CE, till the death of the Gupta ruler Skandagupta to invade India again in a proper manner.

§  This time, the Hunas (under the leadership of Mihirkula, son of Toramana) were successful in their invasion of India. They temporarily overthrew the Gupta Empire.

§  Mihirkula ruled from his capital at Sakal, which is today the modern Sialkot.

§  The Huna power in India collapsed after the defeat of Mihirkula by two Indian rulers, Yasodharman and Narasimhagupta Baladitya o f the later Gupta dynasty.

AFTERMATH OF THE BATTLES:

§  Before the defeat of the Hunas by Skandagupta, the first invasions of the Hunas displaced the Gupta Empire rule from the North Western part of India.

§  This invasion also influenced the regional kings to become more ambitious and rebel against the Gupta Empire.

§  The first Hun king Toramana ruled northern India as far as Malwa in central India.

§  After his death, his son Mihirkula, who destroyed the Gupta Empire, ruled over North Western India for thirty years.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE INVASIONS IN THE INDIAN HISTORY:

§  First of all, the Hunas had destroyed the dominance of the Gupta Empire in India and on their feudatories.

§  Small kingdoms began to grow and prosper on the ruins of the Gupta Empire.

§  The socio-political and economic life during the later Guptas also deteriorated and India lost trade connections with Roman Empire.

§  On the other hand, trade with South East Asia and China prospered through ports like Tamralipta, Kaveri Pattanam, etc.

§  The most significant effect was a racial mixture in India after the Huna invasion.

§  Overall, The Huna invasions of India led to socio-economic and cultural transformation of the Indian society as a whole.

MODULE:8

(POLITICAL SITUATION: POST GUPTA PERIOD)

GENRAL INTRODUCTION TO POST GUPTA PERIOD:

·       Until the rise of Harsha in the early seventh century four kingdoms effectively held power in northern India: the Guptas of Magadha; the Maukharis of Kanauj; the Pushyabhutis of Thanesar; and the Maitrakas of Valabhi.

·       In the absence of a strong power there emerged, quite a number of regional powers in different regions.

·       These powers, representing different dynasties, established their kingdoms and were often at war with each other.

·        

POLITICAL LIFE: POST-GUPTA PERIOD

·       The decline of the Gupta dynasty a little after the fifth century CE triggered a process of political fragmentation in the whole subcontinent.

·       Feudatories & subjugated powers declared their independence & made way for emergence of small kingdoms.

·       The Deccan & the far south were divided into small kingdoms. The different dynasties that dominated the Deccan & the southernmost states were the Vishnukundins, Kadambas, the Pandyas, Cheras & Cholas.

·       This period has been portrayed by scholars as a period of feudalization of the Indian economy characterized by decline of trade & commerce.

SOCIAL LIFE: POST-GUPTA PERIOD

·       The land grants paved the way for feudal development in India from the fifth century onwards.

·       The growth of feudal society weakened the position of the king and made him more dependent on the feudal chiefs.

·       Sati and Dowry were prevalent.

·       As per smriti writers, girls got married b/w the age of six and eight years.

ECONOMIC LIFE: POST-GUPTA PERIOD

·       The land grants became a type of custom which were sanctioned by the Dharamshastras.

·       Certain associated features were developed: trend of localism, trend of closed economy and trends of growth of self-sufficient village economy.

·       Prevalency of land/land rights emerged as a new basis of social structure/hierarchy, cutting varna system.

·       Vessel states were empowered with certain immunities like: transfer of rights over mines and salt etc.

RELIGIOUS LIFE: POST-GUPTA PERIOD

·       Towards the end of 5^th century CE, the Huna invasion results in the destruction of Buddhist temples & monasteries.

·       Hinduism remains the dominant religion in India with Vaishnavism and Shaivism as its prevalent forms.

·       The worship of Shiva seems to have been a general practice in early days.

·       Jainism gained popularity among the trading classes in north & west India.

(MAUKHARI DYNASTY)

INTRODUCTION:

·       The Maukharis ruled the region of western Ganges plains around Kanauj.

·       The modern province of UP was the seat of their power, including Magadha too.

·       Kanauj seems to have been the capital of Maukharis kingdom at least during the reign of Avanti Varman and his son.

·       They gained political ascendency towards the end of 5^th century CE as Harsha inscriptions of 554 CE mentions the rise of Yajna Varman from Gaya during this period.

COMING OT POWER:

·       Since the time of Buddha Gupta, the Maukharis ruled as feudatory chiefs in south Bihar and UP,

·       The disintegration of the Guptas in the early 6^th century CE gave them an opportunity to establish their independence.

·       Maukharis had an elongated war with later-Guptas but under the leadership of Isana-varman Maukharis defeated later-Guptas.

·       The chronology of Maukharis dynasty includes the following:

§  Isana-varman (550 CE – 576 CE)

§  Sarva-varman (570 CE – 580 CE)

§  Avanti-varman (580 CE – 600 CE)

RELIGION:

·       The Maukharis were staunch Hindus.

·       Hinduism received the state support but Buddhism also managed to remain as a prominent religion.

ARMY:

·       The Maukharis army consisted of elephant, cavalry and infantry.

·       The Maukhari strategy mainly focused on deploying elephant corps to crush the enemy armies.

·        The Maukharis fought against the remnants of the white-Huns in the areas of the Gangetic Doad and Magadha as well as in the Malwa region.

·       The Maukharis, rather than the Guptas, were therefore the key actors in repelling the Hunas.

CONTACT WITH SASSANIAN EMPIRE:

·       With the end of Hunnic power, new contacts were established between India and the Sasanian Empire

·       The Indian king created the game chess and sent it to the Iran court with some message and

·       In response, Wise Vizier created the game backgammon and sent it to the Indian court with the same message.

·       Intellectual games such as chess and backgammon demonstrated and celebrated the diplomatic relationship between Khosrow I and a “great king of India.”

(LATER GUPTA DYNASTY)

INTRODUCTION:

·       From around the middle of 6^th century CE till 675 CE the kings who ruled Magadha were known as Magadha Guptas or Later Guptas.

·       The later Guptas of Magadha were not a part of the main Gupta dynasty, but were a minor line having the same name.

·       The later Guptas were also feudatories of the Imperial Guptas like the Maukharis.

·       The genealogy of the kings of this dynasty includes:

§  Krishnagupta

§  Harshagupta

§  Jivitagupta

§  Kumaragupta

§  Damodaragupta

§  Mahasenagupta

§  Madhavagupta

§  Adityasena

NOTABLE RULERS OF LATER GUPTAS:

·       Harshagupta had fought with the Hunas; his son Jivagupta fought against the Lichchhavis of Nepal and Gaudas of Bengal; Jivagupta’s successor king Kumaragupta defeated Maukhari king Isanavarman.

·       The next king Damodargupta, son of Kumaragupta, was defeated and killed by Maukhari king Sarvavarman and lost a portion of Magadha.

·       For some time, the successors of Damodargupta retreated to Malwa because of the Maukharis, but they again established their supremacy in Magadha.

·       The most powerful ruler was Adityasena, who ruled in Magadha in 672 CE, his empire included Magadha, Anga and Bengal.

·       Three successors of Adityasena –

§  Devagupta:

§  Vishnu-gupta: He ruled for 17 years.

§  Jivita-gupta: He probably extended his authority to some territory on the banks of Gomati which once formed part of the Maukhari kingdom.

·       The end of later Guptas is ambiguous and the power of later Gupta’s came to an end in or shortly before the 2^nd quarter of the 8^th century CE.

(VARDHAN DYNASTY)

HISTORY AND EXTENT:

·       Vardhan dynasty came into prominence after the decline of the Gupta Empire.

·       Harshavardhan was a ruler of a large empire in Northern India from 606 CE- 647 CE.

·       He succeeded his brother at the age of 16 and became the undisputed ruler of Thaneshwar.

·       It was one of the largest Empires of the 7^th century CE, covering the entire North and North-western India.

·       It is said that empire was spread across the present-day states of Orissa, Bengal, Punjab and the whole of Indo-Gangetic Plain.

·       The Vardhan empire consisted of types of territories:

§  Areas directly under the Harsha rule.

§  The states and kingdoms which had become feudatories under him.

ADMINISTRATION AND THE EMPIRE:

·       There was no slavery in his empire and people were free to lead life according to their wish.

·       The did not impose heavy taxes on his people and the economy was somewhat self-sufficient.

·       He maintained cordial relations with the Chinese.

·       During his course of his rule, Harshavardhan built a strong army.

ART AND EDUCATION:

·       Harshavardhan was a patron of both art and education as he himself was an author and wrote three Sanskrit plays and 1/4^th of his revenue went for patronizing scholars.

·       Further, Hieun Tsang gives a quite vivid description of the famous Nalanda University which was at its zenith during Harsha’s reign.

·       Nalanda had around 10,000 students and 20,000 students.

·       The curriculum included Vedas, Buddhism, Philosophy, Logic, Urban planning etc.

SOCIETY AND RELIGON:

·       With Prevalency of Caste/Varna system, the society was divided into four castes or varnas: Brahman, Vaishyas, Kshatriya and Shudras.

·       The status of women declined as Satipratha was common and widow remarriage was not allowed.

·       Harsha was a worshipper of Shiva in the beginning but later became a Mahayana Buddhist.

·       After Every five years, religious ceremonies were celebrated at the ancient city of Allahabad.

DEATH AND LEGACY:

·       Harsha’s empire marked the beginning of feudalism in India.

·       Land was granted in villages, which made the local landlords powerful.

·       After ruling over most parts of North India for more than 40 years, Harsha dies in 647 CE.

·       With no Successor, the demise of King Harshavardhan marked the end of the dignity of the Vardhan dynasty.