MODULE:2

(ECOSYSTEM)

INTRODUCTION:

·       The term Ecosystem, was first coined by A.G. Tansely, an English botanist, in the year 1953.

·       The ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organism interact with each other and the surrounding environment.

·       In other words, an ecosystem is a chain of interaction b/w organism and their environment.

(COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM)

INTRODUCTION:

·       Ecosystem have majorly two components:

§  Structural components.

§  Functional components.

·       Structural component is categorised into Biotic and Abiotic components.

·       The Biotic and Abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem.

·       It is an open system where the energy and components can flow throughout the boundaries.

(BIOTIC COMPONENTS)

PRODUCERS:

·       It includes all Autotrophs such as plants.

·       They are called autotrophs as they can produce food through the process of photosynthesis.

CONSUMERS:

·       It includes all Heterotrophs, organism that depend on other organism for food.

·       Consumers are further classified as:

§  Primary consumers: These are always herbivores, rely on producers for food. Ex: fox, frog etc.

§  Secondary consumers: They can either be a carnivores or an omnsivores, depends on primary consumers for food. Ex: wolf, peacock etc.

§  Tertiary consumers: They can also be an omnivores, depends on secondary consumers for food. Ex: lion, tiger etc.

DECOMPOSERS:

·       It includes Saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria.

·       They directly thrive on the dead and decaying organic matters.

(FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM)

FUNCTIONS:

·       Food chain and Food web.

·       Energy flow.

·       Ecological Pyramids.

·       Productivity and cycling of nutrients.

(FOOD CHAIN & FOOD WEB)

INTRODUCTION:

·       The transfer of food energy from the source (plants) through a series of organism by repeated eating and being eaten up is referred to as food chain.

·       Example: Corn, Rat & Owl  AND  Carrots, Rabbit, Fox & Lion  AND  Grass, Grasshopper, Frog, Snake & Eagle.

·       Food chain is of two types:

§  Grazing Food Chain: Starts from living plants and ends at Carnivores.

§  Detritus Food Chain: Starts from dead organic matter and ends in organic compounds.

·       Food web is an inter-linking of food chains in an Ecosystem.

(ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM)

INTRODUCTION:

·       Energy flow is the key function in the ecosystem.

·       Sun is the ultimate source of energy for all ecosystems on the earth.

·       Energy in the Ecosystem follows two laws of thermodynamics:

§  The 1^st law states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but can only be transformed from one form to another.

§  The 2^nd law states that transformations of energy always result in some loss of energy.

·       10% rule of energy, states that 90% of the energy involved is degraded at each trophic level and transfer only 10% of the energy to another level.

(ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS)

INTRODUCTION:

·       The graphical presentation of different trophic levels in an ecosystem where producers occupy the base and the top consumer occupy the apex of the pyramid, is known as ecological pyramid.

·       They are used to illustrate the feeding relationships b/w organisms.

·       Types of Ecological Pyramids:

§  Pyramid of number: It shows number of individuals in each trophic level.

§  Pyramid of biomass: It shows the total biomass of individuals at each trophic level.

§  Pyramid of energy: It shows the amount of energy transferred b/w trophic levels.

§  when data are collected over years, the effects of the changes that takes place in the environment on the organism can be studied by comparing the data.

(ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION)

INTRODUCTION:

·       It is the steady and gradual change in the species of a given area with respect to the changing environment.

·       It is a predictable change and is an inevitable process of nature as all the biotic components have to keep up with the changes in our environment.

·       The ultimate aim of this process is to reach equilibrium in the ecosystem.

·       The community that achieves this aim is called a climax community.

TYPES and EXAMPLES OF AN ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION:

·       Primary succession: It is the succession that starts in lifeless area such as the regions devoid ofs soil or the areas where the soil is unable to sustain life.

·       Secondary succession: It is the succession that occurs when the primary ecosystem gets destroyed. For ex: a climax community gets destroyed by fire and it gets recolonized after the destruction.

·       Cyclic succession: It is just a change in the structure of an ecosystem on a cyclic basis.

·       Examples: Acadia National Park etc.

MODULE:3

(BIODIVERSITY)

INTRODUCTION:

·       The term biodiversity was first coined by WALTER G. ROSEN in 1985.

·       Biodiversity refers to the richness in variety and variability of a species of all living organism in a given habitat.

·       It is the variability among living organism from all sources including inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part.

·       Biodiversity is one measure of the health of ecosystem.

LEVELS OF BIO-DIVERSITY:

It includes three hierarchical levels:

·       Genetic diversity: It means variation of genes within species. Ex: Variation within species of frogs.

·       Species diversity: It means variety of species(flowers) within a region.

·       Community and Ecosystem diversity:

COMMUNITY DIVERSITY:

It has three perspectives:

·       Alpha diversity: It is the biodiversity (number of species) within a particular area, community or ecosystem.

·       Beta diversity: It is the biodiversity b/w the communities.

·       Gamma biodiversity: It refers to the total species richness over a large area or region.

(BIO-GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA)

INTRODUCTION:

·       Biogeographic classification of India is the division of India according to biogeographic characteristics.

·       It includes 10 Zones:

§  Trans-Himalaya.

§  Himalaya.

§  Desert.

§  Semi-Arid.

§  Gangetic Plain.

§  Deccan Peninsula.

§  North-East.

§  Western Ghats.

§  Coasts.

§  Islands.

(VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY)

INTRODUCTION:

·       Consumptive Use Values: Direct use values includes- Food, Drugs & Medicines, Fuel etc.

·       Productive Use Values: Silk, Leather Industry.

·       Social Value: Holy and Sacred trees.

·       Ethical Value: Live and Let Live.

·       Aesthetic Value: Eco-tourism.

·       Ecosystem Service Value: Prevention of soil erosion and Floods etc.

(BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY ACT, 2002)

INTRODUCTION:

It is a comprehensive legislation that seeks to:

·       Regulate access to India’s biodiversity.

·       Promote its conservation and sustainable use.

·       Ensure the equitable sharing of benefits arising from its use.

(BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS IN WORLD)

INTRODUCTION:

·       A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is under threat from humans.

·       The concept of biodiversity hotspots was originated by Norman Myers (1988).

·       To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot on Myers 2000 edition of the hotspot map, a region must meet two strict criteria:

§  It must contain atleast 0.5% or 1500 species of vascular plants of the world.

§    It has to have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation.

§  Myers originally recognized 25 hotspots.

§  Recently the conservation international has added 11 more biodiversity hotpots which makes the present number to 36.

(INDIA AS A MEGADIVERSITY NATION)

INTRODUCTION:

·       India is one of 12 mega diversity countries of world.

·       It has 47,000 species of plants and 81,000 species of animals.

·       Many endemic plants and animals.

·       Great marine diversity due to 7500 Km long coastline.

FEATURES OF INDIAN BIO-DIVERSITY:

·       Total land area of India: 143 million hectares.

·       India occupies 2.47 % of the world’s geographical area and has only 1% of the forest.

·       India has 16.1% of world human population and 15.1% of cattle population.

·       Forest cover of India: 23.57%.

·       India is sharing 12.53% of world’s bio-diversity.

·       India has 3.9% of grasslands, 2% of hot deserts, 4.1 million hectares of wetland ecosystem.

·       India is the 7^th largest country in the world and one among the 17 mega diversity centres.

·       Among 36 globally identified biodiversity hotspots and they are:

§  Eastern Himalaya.

§  Indo-Burma.

§  Western Ghats and Sri-Lanka.

§  Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

·       India recorded:

§  45,000+ species of wild animals.

§  89,000+ species of wild animals.

§  1,39,000 species of plants, animals and microbes are recorded.

§  There are three mega centers of endemism and 26 micro centers of endemism.

(THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY: HABITAT LOSS)

HUMAN ACTIVITIES:

·       Agriculture & Fisheries.

·       Industry

·       International trade.

·       Urbanization and Sprawl.

RESULTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES:

·       Habitat loss and degradation.

·       Pollution.

·       Land cover change.

·       Habitat fragmentation.

(CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY)

INTRODUCTION:

·       biodiversity conservation aims at conservation of species diversity, genetic diversity and ecosystem diversity present in different parts.

·       India has over 600 protected areas, which includes over 9 national parks, over 500 animal sanctuaries and 15 biosphere reserves.

·       There are two basic strategies for biodiversity conservation:

§  Insitu (on-site) conservation

§  Exsitu (off-site) conservation

INSITU (ON SITE) CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY:

·       The term Insitu conservation denotes conservation of species in its natural habitat.

·       The Insitu conservation strategies stress on production of total ecosystem through a network of protected areas.

·       Protected areas: There are about 37,000 protected areas all around world.

§  National parks

§  Sanctuaries

§  Biosphere reserves

·       Sacred forest and lakes:

EXSITU (OFF SITE) CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY:

·       Seed banks, Gene banks or Germ plasm bank.

·       Long-term captive breeding.

·       Short-term propagation and release.

·       Animal translocation.

·       Animal reintroduction. 

·       Tissue culture banks.

·       Pollen storage.

·       Cryo-preservation of gametes and embryos.

·       Botanical gardens.

·       Zoological gardens or Zoo’s.

NATIONAL PARKS:

·       It is a protected area which strictly reserved for the conservation/betterment of the wild life and where activities like forestry, grazing and cultivation are not permitted.

·       Their boundaries are well marked and circumscribed.

·       In national parks, the emphasis is on the preservation of a single plant or animal species. Ex: Gir national park in Gujarat, Kanha national park in MP, Kaziranga national park in Assam etc.

·       They are usually small reserves spreading in an area of 100 Square Kms to 500 Square Kms.

WILD LIFE SANCTURIES:

·       It is a protected area which is reserved for the conservation of only animals and human activities like harvesting of timber, collection of minor forest products are allowed to a certain extent.

·       Boundaries of sanctuaries are not well defined and controlled biotic interferences is permitted, e.g.-tourist activity.

·       In wildlife sanctuaries, the emphasis is on the fauna (animals). EX: Anamalai wildlife sanctuary in Tamil nadu, Chilka lake bird sanctuary in Orissa etc.

·       Private ownership rights are allowed as long as they do not interfere with the well-being of animals.

BIOSPHERE RESERVES:

·       It is a special category of protected areas where human population also forms a part of the system.

·       A biosphere has 3 parts: Core, Buffer and transition zone.

·       Main functions of biosphere reserves: Conservation, Development and Scientific Research. Ex: Nanda devi in UP, Sundarbans in West Bengal etc.

·       They are generally large protected area of usually more than 5,000 Square Kms.

MODULE:4

(WASTE)

INTRODUCTION:

·        A waste can be defined as any unwanted and useless material.

·       The waste can be either solid, liquid or gaseous.

·       Solid waste is a material which has negligible value to the producer and there is no direct consumption of the generated waste.

·       Solid waste management is the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal and monitoring of waste materials.

CLASSIFICATION OF WASTES:

·       Solid waste: Vegetable waste, kitchen waste etc.

·       E-waste: Discarded electronic devices like computer, TV etc.

·       Liquid waste: Water released by different industries such as Tanneries, thermal power plants etc.

·       Plastic waste: Plastic bags, bottles, buckets etc.

·       Metal waste: Unused metal sheet, metal scraps etc.

·       Nuclear waste: Unused materials from nuclear plants.

EFFECTS:

·       Solid waste changes properties of soil, air and water, causing pollution.

·       Solid waste produces foul smell, breeds insects and organism.

·       Leads to spread of many diseases, infections affecting human and animal population.

·       Harmful chemicals are released into the environment.

(SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT)

INTRODUCTION:

·       The processing methods available for management of solid waste includes: segregation, 3R’s: Reduction, Reuse & Recycling and Chemical, Biological etc.

·       Segregation: it means division of waste into dry and wet.

·       Reduction: it is carried out when products are designed, manufactured, packaged and used in a way that limits the amount or toxicity of waste created.

Reuse: it means using material till It is completely worn out.

Recycle: transformation of waste into some useful products.

·       Chemical processing: It involves the chemical transformation or conversion of organic fraction of wastes into various useful compounds such as glucose, synthetic oils, gases, etc.

Biological processing: It involves processes like composting, anaerobic conversion and includes products such as methane, proteins, alcohols etc.

FIVE FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF THE WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM:

·       Waste generation.

·       Onsite handling, storage and processing waste.

·       Collection.

·       Waste transfer and transport.

·       Waste processing and recovery.

(WASTE MANAGEMENT APPROACHES)

INTRODUCTION TO PRACTICE OF 5R’s:

·       Reuse the material till it is completely worn out.

·       Recycle the waste and transform them in some useful products.

·       Reducing the use of and recycling of hazardous chemicals emissions.

·       Recover important elements from generated waste.

·       Reviewing our environmental policy regularly and seeking continuous improvement.

INITIATIVES BY GOVT OF INDIA:

·       Bio-medical Waste Handling Rules, 1998.

·       Municipal Solid Waste Management Rules, 2000.

·       Technical Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management:

·       Income Tax relief to Waste Management Agencies.

(DISASTERS)

INTRODUCTION:

·       Disasters are hazards that cause destruction or environmental changes.

·       Hazards are defined as physical phenomenon that pose a threat to the people, structures or economic assets and which may cause a disaster.

·       A Hazard is an agent which has the potential to cause harm to a vulnerable target.

·       Hazards can be both natural or human induced.

CYCLONES:

·       A cyclone is an area of closed & circular fluid motion.

·       It has low pressure on the inside and high pressure on the outside.

·       The centre of the storm is called the eye and it has the calmest water and the lowest pressure.

·       Cyclones turns counter-clockwise in the northern hemisphere and Clockwise in the southern hemisphere,

This is because it follows the rotational movement of the earth.

EARTHQUAKES:

·       It is the result of a sudden releases of energy from the earth’s crust that creates seismic waves.

·       They are measured using seismographs.

·       The Valdivia earthquake also known as the great Chilean earthquake is the biggest earthquake ever recorded.

FLOODS:

·       Floods are caused when water overflows from a water body.

·       Mainly occurs in tropical areas.

·       Rainfall, River overflow, Strong Coastal winds, Breaking of Dams and Ice melt are the common reasons of the flood.

·       NDMA is the India’s National Disaster Management Authority.

LANDSLIDES:

·       A landslide or a landslip is a movement in the ground and a shallow flow of debris.

·       Landslides are caused by rain, earthquakes, volcanoes and most commonly deforestation.

MODULE:5

(URBAN PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY)

CAUSES:

·       50% of the population lives in urban areas.

·       Urban sprawl.

·       Uncontrolled and Unplanned growth.

·       Densely populated, consume more resources etc.

EFFECTS:

·       Unequal distribution of energy.

·       Demand energy from other states.

·       Economic development hampered.

·       Power-cuts and load-shedding.

(RAINWATER HARVESTING)

INTRODUCTION:

·       It is a simple system to collect, convey and store rainwater.

·       Rainwater capture is accomplished primarily from roof-top, surface runoff and other surfaces.

·       Elements of Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting:

§  Catchment

§  Conduits

§  Filters

§  Storage facility

(WASTELAND RECLAMATION)

INTRODUCTION:

·       Reclamation of wasteland means re-claiming it or to use it for productive purpose.

·       Wasteland is the process of turning barren, sterile wasteland into something that is fertile and sustainable for habitation and cultivation.

·       India has shown an alarming rate of decline in the man-land ratio.

·       It has declined from 1.25 hectare per capita in 1921 to 0.48 hectare per capita in 1986 to 0.31 hectare per capita in 2011.

(NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS & HOLOCAUST)

INTRODUCTION:

·       A nuclear and radiation accident is defined by the International Atomic agency as an “event that has led to significant consequences to people, the environment or the facility”.

·       For Examples: lethal effects to Individuals, large radioactivity release to the environment, or “reactor core melt”.

·       Chernobyl and 3 Mile Island are two major nuclear accidents.

(CLIMATE CHANGE)

INTRODUCTION:

·       CLIMATE is the total of all-weather occurring over a period of years in a given place.

·       It is the average weather conditions of that place.

·       WEATHER is what is happening outdoors in a place at a given time.

·       It can change a lot within a very short time.

(GLOBAL WARMING)

INTRODUCTION:

·       Global warming is the increase in average temperature of the earths near surface air and oceans.

·       This increase is caused by the increased concentration of greenhouses gases.

·       As increased concentration of green houses gases will absorb more heat.

·       Major gases are: carbon dioxide, methane, Ozone etc.

CONSEQUENCES OF GLOBAL WARMING:

·       Catastrophic weather such as hurricanes will increase.

·       Melting of polar icecaps.

·       Heatwaves, droughts and wild fires will be more frequent.

·       Increase in spread of tropical diseases.

(OZONE LAYER DEPLETION)

INTRODUCTION:

·       It is simply the wearing out of the amount of ozone in the atmosphere.

·       The ozone layer protects the earth from the suns UV rays.

·       If the ozone layer is depleted by human action, the effects on the planet could be catastrophic.

CONSEQUENCES AND CAUSES:

·       Skin cancer.

·       Overheating of Earth atmosphere.

·       CFCs considered the main reasons behind ozone layer depletion.

(CONSUMARISM AND WASTE PRODUCTS)

INTRODUCTION TO CONSUMERISM AND WASTE PRODUCTS:

·       Consumerism is a social and economic order on the systematic creation and fostering of a desire to purchase goods and services in ever greater amounts.

·       Waste product is unwanted or useless materials.

·       In biology, waste is any of the many unwanted substances or toxins that are expelled from living organism, metabolic waste.

EFFECTS OF CONSUMERISM:

·       Craving for goods is high.

·       Imbalances in distribution of goods.

·       Ecological imbalances: Deforestation for urbanisation

·       Ecological imbalances: Industrialization for production of excessive goods.

(ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION)

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION:

·       Environmental Legislation means a plan of action adopted by the Govt, rationalizing the course of action.

·       Environmental legislation tries to enact all the laws of environment in a justifiable manner.

·       Environmental legislation although varies from country or continent focuses on a common goal of secure and sustainable living at earth.

·       In Indian constitution, Article 38-A and Article 51-A(g) are related to Environmental Protection.

MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL ACTS ARE:

·       Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and The Biological Diversity Act, 2002.

·       The water (Prevention & Control of pollution) Act, 1974.

·       The Air (Prevention & Control of pollution) Act, 1981.

·       The Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986.